Hesiod is one
of our
sources for the story
of Prometheus, the god
who stole fire from the
gods and gave the
secret to humans. His
punishment was to be
tied to a tree and have
an eagle eat his liver
every day. The liver
would grow back over
night so the punishment
could continue.
It is unusual for an
archaic culture to say anyone would be punished after
death for their earthly
sins -- unless a person
attacked the pride or
possessions of the
gods, who are usually
arrogant, irritable, vain,
and petty -- just like
most human royalty,
at least in those times.
HESIOD, excerpt from WORKS AND DAYS,
ca. 8th century B.C (1)
Along with the great epics of Homer, Hesiod's writings are one of the earliest sources of ancient Greek myths. Both Homer and Hesiod wrote around the 8th century BCE, though Homer's works are usually taken to be earlier. They both took advantage of a wonderful new Greek alphabet that was partly taken from Phoenician, to which the Greeks added or changed certain letters to represent vowel sounds. Phoenician, like other ancient alphabets, had few or no letters for vowels. This new Greek alphabet could be called the best in the world at the time.Homer wrote epic myths: long complex stories woven together out of earlier tales. Hesiod provides an even more formal order to his stories. In the excerpt below he organizes cosmic history in a sequence of stages. This is not yet the abstract analyses of philosophy (and theology and science). But it is on the way to the more logical and systematic style that the axial age will soon add to the toolkit of cognitive methods. To read Hesiod is to peek in on a culture poised to change dramatically in only a few centuries, from archaic to historic. (Note that the "gods" here are true gods, of enormous power and awesomeness.)
The story begins with a long section telling of the original gods. Gaia, the earth/goddess gave birth to Uranus, who then proceded to have many children with her, until one of his sons, Cronos, castrated him so he could take his place,mate with Gaia and produce his own divine offspring, and so on, though the birth and battles of the many gods. Eventually the story tells of the origin of humans.
Note that it begins with a golden age and then declines until, alas -- us.
. . . I will sum you up another tale well and skillfully--and do you lay it up in your heart,--how the gods and mortal men sprang from one source.
First of all the deathless gods who dwell on Olympus made a golden race of mortal men who lived in the time of Cronos when he was reigning in heaven. And they lived like gods without sorrow of heart, remote and free from toil and grief: miserable age rested not on them; but with legs and arms never failing they made merry with feasting beyond the reach of all evils. When they died, it was as though they were overcome with sleep, and they had all good things; for the fruitful earth unforced bare them fruit abundantly and without stint. They dwelt in ease and peace upon their lands with many good things, rich in flocks and loved by the blessed gods.
But after the earth had covered this generation--they are called pure spirits dwelling on the earth, and are kindly, delivering from harm, and guardians of mortal men; for they roam everywhere over the earth, clothed in mist and keep watch on judgments and cruel deeds, givers of wealth; for this royal right also they received;--then they who dwell on Olympus made a second generation which was of silver and less noble by far. It was like the golden race neither in body nor in spirit. A child was brought up at his good mother's side an hundred years, an utter simpleton, playing childishly in his own home. But when they were full grown and were come to the full measure of their prime, they lived only a little time and that in sorrow because of their foolishness, for they could not keep from sinning and from wronging one another, nor would they serve the immortals, nor sacrifice on the holy alters of the blessed one as it is right for men to do wherever they dwell. Then Zeus the son of Cronos was angry and put them away, because they would not give honour to the blessed gods who live on Olympus.
But when earth had covered this generation also--they are called blessed spirits of the underworld by men, and, though they are of second order, yet honour attends them also--Zeus the Father made a third generation of mortal men, a brazen race, sprung from ash-trees(2); and it was in no way equal to the silver age, but was terrible and strong. They loved the lamentable works of Ares and deeds of violence; they ate no bread, but were hard of heart like adamant, fearful men. Great was their strength and unconquerable the arms which grew from their shoulders on their strong limbs. Their armour was of bronze, and their houses of bronze, and of bronze were their implements: there was no black iron. These were destroyed by their own hands and passed to the dank house of chill Hades, and left no name: terrible though they were, black Death seized them, and they left the bright light of the sun.
But when earth had covered this generation also, Zeus the son of Cronos made yet another, the fourth, upon the fruitful earth, which was nobler and more righteous, a god-like race of hero-men who are called demi-gods, the race before our own, throughout the boundless earth. Grim war and dread battle destroyed a part of them, some in the land of Cadmus at seven-gated Thebes when they fought for the flocks of Oedipus, and some, when it had brought them in ships over the great sea gulf to Troy for rich-haired Helen's sake: there death's end enshrouded a part of them. But to the others father Zeus the son of Cronos gave a living and an abode apart from men, and made them dwell at the ends of earth. And they live untouched by sorrow in the islands of the blessed along the shore of deep swirling Ocean, happy heroes for whom the grain-giving earth bears honey-sweet fruit flourishing thrice a year, far from the deathless gods, and Cronos rules over them; for the father of men and gods released him from his bonds. And these last equally have honour and glory.
And again far-seeing Zeus made yet another generation, the fifth, of men who are upon the bounteous earth.
Thereafter, would that I were not among the men of the fifth generation, but either had died before or been born afterwards. For now truly is a race of iron, and men never rest from labour and sorrow by day, and from perishing by night; and the gods shall lay sore trouble upon them. But, notwithstanding, even these shall have some good mingled ith their evils. And Zeus will destroy this race of mortal men also when they come to have grey hair on the temples at their birth.(3) The father will not agree with his children, nor the children with their father, nor guest with his host, nor comrade with comrade; nor will brother be dear to brother as aforetime. Men will dishonour their parents as they grow quickly old, and will carp at them, chiding them with bitter words, hard-hearted they, not knowing the fear of the gods. They will not repay their aged parents the cost of their nurture, for might shall be their right: and one man will sack another's city. There will be no favour for the man who keeps his oath or for the just or for the good; but rather men will praise the evil-doer and his violent dealing. Strength will be right and reverence will cease to be; and the wicked will hurt the worthy man, speaking false words against him, and will swear an oath upon them. Envy, foul-mouthed, delighting in evil, with scowling face, will go along with wretched men one and all. And then Aidos and Nemesis,(4) with their sweet forms wrapped in white robes, will go from the wide-pathed earth and forsake mankind to join the company of the deathless gods: and bitter sorrows will be left for mortal men, and there will be no help against evil.
2. Eustathius refers to Hesiod as stating that men sprung" from oaks and stones and ashtrees." Proclus believed that the Nymphs called Meliae (Theogony 187) are intended. Goettling would render:"A race terrible because of their (ashan) spears."
3. i.e., the race will so degenerate that at the last even a new-born child will show the marks of old age.
4. Aidos, as a quality, is that feeling of reverence or shame which restrains men from wrong: Nemesis is the feeling of righteous indignation aroused especially by the sight of the wicked in undeserved prosperity (cf. Psalms, lxxii. 1-19).