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For Additional Extensive resources please see:
Internment of Japanese
Americans
in Concerntation Camps
1912
Japanese Americans owned 12,726 acres of farmland in California.1
1913
California Alien Land Law prohibited "aliens ineligible to
citizenship" (ie. all Asian immigrants) from owning land or property, but
permitted three year leases.1
1920
California Alien Land Law prohibited leasing land to "aliens ineligible to
citizenship." By 1925, it was also prohibited in Washington, Arizona,
Oregon, Idaho, Nebraska, Texas, Kansas, Louisiana, Montana, New Mexico,
Minnesota, and Missouri. During World War II, Utah, Wyoming, and Arkansas also
joined.1
1922
In Ozawa v. U.S., the Supreme Court reaffirmed that Asian immigrants were
not eligible for naturalization.2
February 28, 1933
The day after the Reichstag fire, Hitler persuaded President Hindenburg to sign
Article 48, an "emergency" decree authorizing Hitler to suspend civil
rights, arrest, imprison, and execute suspicious persons (communists,
socialists, and labor union leaders), and outlaw non-Nazi press.4
March 20, 1933
Dachau, the first Nazi concentration camp, opened.4
April 7, 1933
Jews barred from German civil service.3
July 14, 1933
Hitler obtained the right to revoke German citizenship for persons considered a
threat or "undesirable" to the government.4
June, 1935
Congress passed an act making aliens otherwise ineligible to citizenship
eligible if (a) they had served in the U.S. armed forces between April 6, 1917,
and November 11, 1918, and been honorably discharged, and (b) they were
permanent residents of the United States. A small number of "Issei
obtained citizenship under this act before the deadline on January 1, 1937.10
September 15, 1935
Nuremberg Laws ended German citizenship for Jews.3
September 21, 1935
Jewish doctors forced to resign from private hospitals by Nuremberg Laws.4
November 16, 1937
Jews could obtain passports for travel outside of Germany only in special cases.3
July 22, 1938
Effective January 1, 1939 in Germany, all Jews forced to carry special
identification cards.4
November 15, 1938
German schools expelled all Jews.3
November 28, 1939
German Jews restricted by curfew.4
February, 1939
The Wagner-Rogers bill (by Massachusetts Republican Congressmember Edith Nourse
Rogers and New York Democrat Senator Robert F. Wagner)*
died in Congress.*
Roosevelt refused to take a position on it.
It would have admitted 20,000 additional Jewish refugee children under the age
of 14 into the United States from Germany and Austria.
1939
Lists of "dangerous" enemy aliens and citizens began to be compiled in
various government departments, such as the FBI, special intelligence agencies
of the Justice Department, the Office of Naval Intelligence, and the army's
Military Intelligence Division.8
November 26, 1940
Jews in Warsaw began to be forced into a ghetto enclosed by an 8-foot high wall.
The German government denied that anti-Semitism was its motivation.4
1940
The census found 126,947 Japanese Americans; 62.7% were citizens by birth. In
addition, 157,905 were in the Territory of Hawaii, and 263 in the Territory of
Alaska.2
June 13, 1941
5000 Jews sent from Paris to labor camps.4
June, 1941
Vichy Government revoked civil rights of French Jews in North Africa.3
Summer, 1941
The Hawaiian National Guard (made up largely of Nisei) was federalized and later
became the 100th Infantry Battalion and 442nd Regimental Combat Team.1
September 6, 1941
Effective September 19, Jews prohibited from appearing in public without the
Jewish star and prohibited from leaving their residential areas without police
permission.4
November 1, 1941
The Japanese Language School at the Presidio of San Francisco was formed. In the
first class were 45 Nisei and Kibei and 15
others. It was moved to Camp Savage, Minnesota, renamed the Military
Intelligence Service Language School (MISLS) and later moved to Fort Snelling,
Minnesota.1
November 7, 1941
Curtis Munson issued his report on the Japanese Americans living on the coast.12
November 26, 1941
Grace Tully (Roosevelt's secretary) told Henry Field (anthropologist and aide to
Roosevelt) that the President was ordering him to produce, in the shortest time
possible, the full names and addresses of each American-born and foreign-born
Japanese listed by locality within each state. She told him to use the 1930 and
1940 census.13
December 7, 1941
Japan bombed Pearl Harbor.
A blanket presidential warrant authorized U.S. Attorney General Francis Biddle
to have the FBI arrest a predetermined number of "dangerous enemy
aliens," including German, Italian, and Japanese nationals. 737 Japanese
Americans arrested by the end of the day.2
December 8, 1941
U.S. entered World War II.
December 11, 1941
FBI detained 1370 Japanese Americans classified as "dangerous
enemy aliens."2
December 22, 1941
The Agriculture Committee of the L.A. Chamber of Commerce recommended that all
Japanese nationals be put under "absolute Federal control."2
December 29, 1941
All enemy aliens in California, Oregon, Washington, Montana, Idaho, Utah, and
Nevada were ordered to surrender contraband.2
January 5, 1942
Japanese American selective service registrants classified as enemy aliens
(IV-C). Many Japanese American soldiers discharged or assigned to menial labor
such as "kitchen police."2
January 6, 1942
"I do not believe that we could be any too strict in our consideration of
the Japanese in the face of the treacherous way in which they do things,"
wrote Leland Ford, L.A. Congressman, in a
telegram to Secretary of State Cordell Hull, asking that all Japanese Americans
be removed from the West Coast.2
January 28, 1942
The California State Personnel Board voted to bar all "descendants of
natives with whom the United States [is] at war" from all civil service
positions. This was only enforced against Japanese Americans.2
January 29, 1942
Attorney General Francis Biddle began the establishment of prohibited zones
forbidden to all enemy aliens. German, Italian, and Japanese aliens were ordered
to leave San Francisco waterfront areas.2
January 30, 1942
"Unless something is done it may bring about a repetition of Pearl
Harbor," said Earl Warren, California Attorney General, calling Japanese
Californians the "Achilles heel of the entire civilian defense
effort."2
February 4, 1942
The U.S. Army established 12 "restricted areas" in which enemy aliens
were restricted by a 9 p.m. to 6 a.m. curfew, allowed to travel only to and from
work, and not more than 5 miles from their home.2
Major Bendetsen is promoted to
Lieutenant Colonel. On February 14, he was again promoted to Colonel.
February 6, 1942
A Portland American Legion post urged the removal of "enemy aliens,
especially from critical Coast areas," including Japanese American
citizens.2
February 13, 1942
The West Coast congressional delegation requested that the President remove
"all persons of Japanese lineage... aliens and citizens alike, from the
strategic areas of California, Oregon and Washington."2
February 16, 1942
California Joint Immigration Committee urged that all Japanese Americans be
removed from the Pacific Coast and any other vital areas. 2192 Japanese
Americans under arrest by the FBI.2
February 19, 1942
President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, authorizing the secretary of
war to define military areas "from which any or all persons may be excluded
as deemed necessary or desirable."2
The only significant opposition would come from the Quakers (Society of Friends)
and the ACLU (American Civil Liberties Union).1
February 20, 1942
Secretary of War Henry Stimson appointed Lieutenant General John DeWitt to carry
out Executive Order 9066.2
February 26, 1942
Navy ordered Japanese American residents of Terminal Island, San Pedro,
California, to leave within 48 hours to settle wherever they could.2
February 28, 1942
House Committee on Un-American Activities released its 300 page Yellow Book,
containing almost every possible charge against Japanese Americans.2
March 2, 1942
General DeWitt issued Public Proclamation No. 1, creating military areas in
Washington, Oregon, California, and parts of Arizona and declaring the right to
remove German, Italian, and Japanese aliens and anyone of "Japanese
Ancestry" living in Military Areas No. 1 and 2 should it become necessary.2
March 12, 1942
The Secretary of Treasury designated the Federal Reserve Bank of San Fancisco to
handle Japanese American property, while the Farm Security Administration was
given control over Japanese American farms and farm equipment. Evictees were
told:
no Japanese need sacrifice any personal property of value. If he cannot
dispose of it at a fair price, he will have opportunity to store it prior
to the time he is forced to evacuate by Exclusion Order. Persons who
attempt to take advantage of Japanese evacuees by trying to obtain property
at sacrifice prices are un-American, unfair, and are deserving only of the
severest censure.10
However, there were no interventions to freeze unfair transactions by the
Federal Reserve Bank and only one instance of intervention by the Farm Security
Administration.10
March 16, 1942
DeWitt issued Public Proclamation No. 2, creating Military Areas 3 to 6 in
Idaho, Montana, Nevada, and Utah, respectively.2
March 18, 1942
Roosevelt created the War Relocation Authority (WRA). Milton Eisenhower became
responsible for a plan to remove designated persons from the restricted areas.2
March 21, 1942
Congress imposed federal penalties for those who refuse to obey orders to enter
or leave designated military areas.2
Manzanar, the first American concentration camp, opened.
March 23, 1942
DeWitt issued Civilian Exclusion Order No. 1, giving alien and non-alien persons
of Japanese ancestry one week to leave Bainbridge Island in Seattle's Puget
Sound.2
March 24, 1942
Public Proclamation No. 3 included Japanese American citizens among "enemy
aliens" who must obey travel restrictions, curfew, and contraband
regulations.2
March 27, 1942
Public Proclamation No. 4 prohibited Japanese aliens from voluntary evacuation
of Military Area No. 1.2
March 28, 1942
The Portland, Oregon curfew violated by Minoru Yasui.12
April 7, 1942
WRA Director Milton Eisenhower asked the governors and representatives of
Nevada, Idaho, Oregon, Utah, Montana, Colorado, New Mexico, Wyoming, Washington,
and Arizona to accept Japanese American evacuees. Colorado Governor Ralph Carr
was the only one to offer cooperation.2
May 13, 1942
Ichiro Shimoda shot and killed for trying to escape from Fort Sill.
May 16, 1942
Seattle's curfew and exclusion restrictions violated by Gordon Hirabayashi.12
May 30, 1942
Fred Korematsu arrested in San Leandro, California for exclusion violation.12
June 7, 1942
General DeWitt announced completion of the removal of 100,000 Japanese Americans
from Military Area No. 1.2
June 12, 1942
Fred T. Korematsu was charged with violation of Exclusion Order No. 34 in U.S.
District Court for Northern California.2
June 17, 1942
Dillon S. Myer replaced Milton Eisenhower as WRA Director.2
June 29, 1942
1600 inmates sent from assembly and relocation centers to fill sugar beet labor
shortage in Oregon, Utah, Idaho, and Montana.2
July 13, 1942
Mitsuye Endo filed for Writ of Habeas Corpus.2
July 27, 1942
Two ill prisoners shot to death in the early morning at Lordsburg, New Mexico.8
August 7, 1942
Removal of all Japanese Americans (over 110,000) completed in Military Areas No.
1 and 2.2
August 18, 1942
The War Department assigned military area status to the four relocation centers
outside the Western Defense Command.2
October 12, 1942
Roosevelt declared Italian aliens were no longer considered "enemy
aliens."12
October 20, 1942
Trial of Gordon K. Hirabayashi started in Seattle with Judge Lloyd L. Black.2
October 24, 1942
Over 8000 prisoners were working to save the beet and potato crop harvest in
various western states.12
November 18, 1942
Poston demonstration against the arrest of two prisoners accused of beating an
alleged "informer."
A general strike followed, 5 days later.2
December 6, 1942
At Manzanar, arrest of prisoners accused of informer-beating led to protest and
violence. Military police fired into the crowd, killing two protesters and
wounding at least 10 more.2
1942
Military Intelligence Service (MIS) soldiers served in the Pacific Theater,
translating captured communication, interrogated prisoners, broadcast
propaganda, and would eventually work on the surrender, war crimes trials, and
occupation forces.1
January 5, 1943
Hirabayashi's conviction for curfew violation reaffirmed by Ninth Circuit Court
of Appeals.2
January 28, 1943
Over 2500 volunteer for the military as restrictions on Nisei service are
removed.2
February 3, 1943
WRA began processing the loyalty questionaire.
U.S. Army officially activated the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, composed of the
100th Battalion from Hawaii and Japanese American volunteers from the mainland
concentration camps.2 Nearly 10,000 Hawaiian Nisei
volunteered for military service. Only 1100 mainland prisoners volunteer.12
February 20, 1943
Seven months after it was filed, Mitsuye Endo's case was forwarded to the
Supreme Court by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals.2
April 11, 1943
Elderly man shot to death at Topaz.
April 19, 1943
Warsaw Ghetto revolt began. SS troops crushed the uprising.4
June 9, 1943
California Governor Earl Warren signed prohibition of commercial fishing
licenses from being given to alien Japanese.2
June 21, 1943
Hirabayashi's and Yasui's convictions reaffirmed by the Supreme Court, but it
refused to address the question of constitutionality raised in the Hirabayashi
case.12
July 31, 1943
WRA designated Tule Lake as a "segregation camp."2
October 15, 1943
A strike in Tule Lake followed the death of an inmate in a truck accident.12
November 1, 1943
Mass demonstrations held in Tule Lake after it was placed under Army control.2
1943
The 100th Infantry Battalion fought in North Africa and Italy, joining the 442nd
Regimental Combat Team in June 1944. They fought in Italy, France, and Germany,
rescued the "Lost Battalion," and their 522nd Field Artillery
Battalion liberated the survivors at the Dachau death camp. Of the 10,000
volunteers for the all-American combat unit, 1200 came from mainland U.S.
concentration camps and the rest from Hawaii, where Executive Order 9066 did not
apply.1
January 14, 1944
Tule Lake no longer under Army control.2
January 20, 1944
Secretary of War Stimson announced that Japanese Americans were eligible for the
draft.2
May 24, 1944
Shoichi James Okamoto shot by camp soldier.
July 18, 1944
In Cheyenne, Wyoming, a federal district court convicted 63 men from Heart
Mountain of draft resistance and sentenced them to three years in federal
penitentiary.2 Also that month, seven leaders of the Heart Mountain
Fair Play Committee, along with newspaper editor James Omura, were arrested for
conspiracy to encourage draft resistance.12
July 29, 1944
Federal Judge Louis E. Goodman dismissed indictments against 26 Tule Lake draft
resisters, declaring "It is shocking... that an American citizen be
confined on the ground of disloyalty, and then... be compelled to serve in the
armed forces, or be prosecuted for not."12
November, 1944
James Omura acquitted, but the Heart Mountain Fair Play Committee leaders were
sentenced to three years imprisonment for conspiracy.12
December 17, 1944
Public Proclamation No. 21 issued by Major General Henry C. Pratt (effective
January 2, 1945), allowing evacuees to return home and lifting contraband
regulations.
The next day, two years and five months after it was filed, the Endo case was
ruled on in the Supreme Court -- the WRA cannot detain "loyal"
citizens. Executive Order 9066 and the evacuation was upheld in the Korematsu
case.2 Justice Frank Murphy disagreed:
I dissent, therefore, from this legalization of racism. Racial
discrimination in any form and in any degree has no justifiable part
whatever in our democratic way of life. It is unattractive in any setting
but it is utterly revolting among a free people who have embraced the
principles set forth in the Constitution of the United States."11
January, 1945
In Hood River, Oregon, the American Legion removed the names of 17 Nisei
soldiers from the community honor roll.12
August 14, 1945
Japan surrendered. World World II ended.
January, 1945
The Court of Appeals reversed the conspiracy convictions of the Heart Mountain
Fair Play Committee leaders on technical grounds, but they remained in prison
until March, 1946.12
1948
In Oyama v. California, the Supreme Court struck down the Alien Land Laws
as violations of the Fourteenth Amendment.
The Evacuation Claims Act authorized payment to Japanese Americans who suffered
economic loss during imprisonment: with the necessary proof, 10 cents was
returned for every $1.00 lost.1
1952
The McCarran-Walter Immigration and Naturalization Act ended the racially based
naturalization ban and the 1924 ban on Asian immigration.1
1 Frank and Joanne Iritani; Ten Visits; Asian American
Curriculum Project, Inc.; San Mateo, CA; ©1995.
2 Ed. by Roger Daniels, Sandra Taylor, and Harry Kitano; Japanese
Americans, from Relocation to Redress; University of Utah Press; Salt Lake
City, Utah; ©1986.
3 South Carolina ETV, Holocaust
Time Line, ©1995.
4 Ben S. Austin, The
Holocaust Page -- Chronology,
©1996.
5 Yoshiko Uchida, Desert Exile, University of Washington
Press, Seattle and London, ©1982.
6 Smithsonian Institution, A
More Perfect Union, ©1995.
7 Edward Spicer, Asael Hansen, Katherine Luomala, Marvin Opler; Impounded
People, Japanese-Americans in the Relocation Centers; University of Arizona
Press; Tucson, Arizona; ©1969.
8 Tetsuden Kashima, "American Mistreatment of Internees During
World War II: Enemy Alien Japanese" in: Ed. by Roger Daniels, Sandra
Taylor, and Harry Kitano; Japanese Americans, from Relocation to Redress;
University of Utah Press; Salt Lake City, Utah; ©1986; p. 52-56.
9 Michi Weglyn, Years of Infamy, Morrow Quill Paperbacks, New
York, ©1976.
10 Dorothy Swaine Thomas and Richard S. Nishimoto, The Spoilage,
University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, ©1946, p. 2, 14-15.
11 Ed. by Melvin I. Urofsky, Basic
Readings in U.S. Democracy -- Korematsu
v. United States, United States Information Agency, Washington D.C., ©1996.
12 Ellen Levine, A Fence Away from Freedom, G.P. Putnam's
Sons, New York, ©1995, p. 231-240.
13 Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of
Civilians; Joan Z. Bernstein, Chair; Personal Justice Denied; Washington,
D.C.; ©1982; p. 104-5 | |
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